Stimulus generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a baby is taught to fear a stuffed bear, they will also fear anything that resembles the stuffed bear. Discrimination is the ability to see the difference between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Extinction occurs when the conditioned response decreases or disappears. This happens when a conditioned response no longer is paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, the bell that signaled food would be shortly arriving stimulated salivation in the dogs. Now, the bell rings and the salivation occurs. No food is given. Eventually the bell is rung and no salivation occurs. Higher order conditioning occurs when the conditioned response becomes the unconditioned response.
This website http://psychology.about.com/od/sindex/g/stimgen.htm focuses on stimulus generalization and explains it much more in detail.
This website http://psychology.about.com/od/eindex/g/extinction.htm describes extinction in classical conditioning and how it occurs,
Systematic Desensitization is a type of behavioral therapy. It aims to remove a phobia from the life of a person. The therapist slowly introduces the fear and counteracts it with a relaxing response. Slowly, the object becomes more real until it is real. For example, a person was afraid of snakes and came to a therapist to have the fear removed. The therapist would first show the subject pictures and then stuffed animals and then the real thing. As the snake is introduced, the therapist helps the subject to control their breathing and muscle tension. Aversive counterconditioning seeks to end an addiction. Addiction is usually paired with good thoughts and reactions such as, being with friends. The good feelings will increase the chance that someone will use the drug again. In counterconditioning the person is given a negative response when they do the behavior. This will decrease the chance of the person doing the behavior again.
This website http://www.livescience.com/20468-spider-phobia-cured-therapy.html show how to cure someone of a phobia of spiders, using the same techniques.
This image show how you can counterconditioning your dog to behave appropriate in the proper situation.
Instrumental conditioning, also known as operant conditioning, is the process by which humans and animals learn to behave in such a way to obtain rewards and avoid punishment. In a study done a light would flash and a few seconds later a panel would slide open with food for a few seconds allowing a bird to eat, then close again after a few seconds. Eventually the bird would peck at the panel after the light was turned on even if the panel didn't move. This is a example of instrumental conditioning on animals.
This website http://changingminds.org/explanations/behaviors/conditioning/types_conditioning.htm describes the four types of operant conditioning and the effects of the four.
This image shows the steps of operant conditioning, where it starts with a stimulus then goes to a response, finally to reinforcement then repeated.
Reinforcement means to strengthen. By rewarding or punishing a behavior once will increase or decrease the chances of that behavior happening again. We give reinforcers everyday. Such a saying as “Good job” is a reinforcer. Positive reinforcement is good. It aims to increase the occurrence of a behavior. Most often it is praise or rewards. Negative reinforcement is trying to decrease the occurrence of a behavior. For example, scolding a child for interrupting class will decrease the chance that the child will interrupt class again.
Positive and Negative Punishment
Punishment refers to adding something aversive in order to decrease a behavior. For example, spanking. A child misbehaves and receives a spanking, the child is less likely to perform that behavior again.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio: This schedule refers to applying the reinforcement after a specific number of behaviors. The reinforcement can be either positive or negative. Fixed Interval: This schedule refers to applying the reinforcement after a specific amount of time. The problem with this schedule is that someone may just do the behavior right before reinforcement in order to look good. Variable Ratio: This schedule refers to applying the reinforcement after a variable number of responses. The best example for this is a casino. The slot machines are on a variable ratio schedule. The chances of the reinforcement are different. Sometimes you get two coins, sometimes three, sometimes ten, and sometimes none. How hard is it to quit playing when you know the next time could be the time you win big? Variable Interval: This schedule refers to applying the reinforcement after a variable amount of time. For example, at a job you may not be sure when your boss will check in on you next. It could be in 5 minutes or 30, you just don’t know. So you must be working at all times.
Discriminative Stimuli
A discriminative stimuli is a stimulus that controls the probability of a response. For example, a pigeon is pecking at a key illuminated from behind by a green light. As the pigeon pecks at the key it receives a positive reinforcement. Then the green light is shut off and the reinforcement is no longer given. The pecking gradually decreases until the green light is turned back on and so is the reinforcement. Eventually the pigeon only pecks the key when the light is on.
Shaping
Shaping modifies behavior by reinforcing behaviors that progressive approximate the target behavior. For example, when teaching a child to write their name. You first reward them for writing the first letter and so on.
Positive and Negative Punishment
Punishment refers to adding something aversive in order to decrease a behavior. For example, spanking. A child misbehaves and receives a spanking, the child is less likely to perform that behavior again.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio: This schedule refers to applying the reinforcement after a specific number of behaviors. The reinforcement can be either positive or negative. Fixed Interval: This schedule refers to applying the reinforcement after a specific amount of time. The problem with this schedule is that someone may just do the behavior right before reinforcement in order to look good. Variable Ratio: This schedule refers to applying the reinforcement after a variable number of responses. The best example for this is a casino. The slot machines are on a variable ratio schedule. The chances of the reinforcement are different. Sometimes you get two coins, sometimes three, sometimes ten, and sometimes none. How hard is it to quit playing when you know the next time could be the time you win big? Variable Interval: This schedule refers to applying the reinforcement after a variable amount of time. For example, at a job you may not be sure when your boss will check in on you next. It could be in 5 minutes or 30, you just don’t know. So you must be working at all times.
Discriminative Stimuli
A discriminative stimuli is a stimulus that controls the probability of a response. For example, a pigeon is pecking at a key illuminated from behind by a green light. As the pigeon pecks at the key it receives a positive reinforcement. Then the green light is shut off and the reinforcement is no longer given. The pecking gradually decreases until the green light is turned back on and so is the reinforcement. Eventually the pigeon only pecks the key when the light is on.
Shaping
Shaping modifies behavior by reinforcing behaviors that progressive approximate the target behavior. For example, when teaching a child to write their name. You first reward them for writing the first letter and so on.
This image shows the different schedules of reinforcement and the number of responses revieved for each over the period of time.
The scientists in this experiment gave the geese food after they passed the ball back and fourth to each other, hence forth shaping the way they believe they will receive food.
Instrumental conditioning in the therapeutic situation is also known as behavior modification or behavior therapy. This relies on the the use of reinforcement, shaping, modeling, and related techniques to change the behavior. One must be reinforced for performing the desired behavior. Since the behavior is reinforced, behavior therapy can yield quick and effective results. Both classical and instrumental conditioning are used to teach a response. Classical conditioning is done by using a stimulus to illicit a new response. This usually occurs when the response is already a natural reflex. Instrumental conditioning uses a reward or punishment to either increase or decrease the probability of a behavior occurring again.
This website http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/classical-vs-operant-conditioning.htm describes how classical and instrumental conditioning work more in detail.
This video shows the differences between classical and instrumental conditioning with some pretty neat visuals.
Determinism is the belief that all events are caused by things that happened before them that people have no real ability to make choices or control what happens. Skinner means that for every event that occurs there is a reason for it occurring. The reason happened in the past once that happened then there is nothing that can be done to stop the future event it is all pre-determined.
This article http://www.informationphilosopher.com/freedom/determinism.html describes determinism and many components that go along with determinism.
This image depicts that what already occurred in the future, the left where they have been pushed already, affects the future at the right no matter what because they will push them over no matter what.
Freud theorized and later discovered that the conscious is the tip of the iceberg and that the unconscious is much larger and contains many things that we don't think about, but once they are mentioned we can relay them on. For example people are talking about what their street address is and once that is said your brain just thinks your own address without you having to wonder about it. Freud also thought that we kept very sexual thought in our unconscious that was to sexual for our conscious.
This article http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/consciousuncon.htm describes Freud and the the conscious and unconscious mine he discovered.
This image shows how small the conscious looks like compared to the unconscious in the form of an iceberg.